Beowulf and the Battle of the Ice of Lake Vänern

The Battle of the Ice of Lake Vänern

Beowulf was a legendary Geatish hero, who had a Norse epic poem named after, he participated in this battle, which was not only referred to in the poem, but also in the Norse Sagas. The battle was the result of Eanmund and Eadgils, fleeing to Geatland to seek refuge after their father King Ohthere had died and his brother Onela had seized the Swedish throne. Ohthere is thought to have  been the first historical King of Sweden. As, Ohthere's sons had fled to Geatland, Onela attacked the Geats. Beowulf, decided to help Eadgils gain the Swedish throne after the Geatish King Heardred was killed. Originally, Beowulf had been offered kingship over Geatland by Queen Hygd, after King Higlac's death, but he had declined in favour of Heardred. However, now Heardred was dead Beowulf was named King. During the battle, Onela was killed and therefore Eadgils became King of Sweden.

                                                      The first folio of the poem Beowulf
The battle is most likely a historical event, as it is not only mentioned by the 3,000 line long poem, but it is also mentioned in several other Scandinavian sources, such as those of Snorri Sturluson. Beowulf itself is the longest poem in Old English.  During the battle, the combatants have been described as being mounted, however later Anglo-Saxon and Viking told that the legend was fought on foot. Finally, Beowulf is said to have ruled the Geats for 51 years in total.

Image Credit:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Beowulf_Cotton_MS_Vitellius_A_XV_f._132r.jpg
Sources:
http://www.bl.uk/onlinegallery/onlineex/englit/beowulf/

Greatest Naval Battles

Greatest Naval Battles

Throughout, history there have been many times when man has took their conflicts onto the sea. Many of these battles have certainly had some influence on history and war, whether decisive or not. Below a brief overview of some of the greatest naval battles of all of history shall be given.

The Battle of the Delta                                                                         

Ramesses III and Egypt were in danger from the mysterious Sea Peoples. The Sea Peoples had plundered and destroyed the Hittite Empire's Capital Hattusha and their endeavours were leading to the collapse of the Bronze Age. After defeating them in a land battle in Syria, Ramesses returned to Egypt ready for the Sea People's attack. Ramesses lined the shores of the Nile Delta with archers and lured the Sea Peoples into the Delta, where ships also lay in wait to ambush. Archers from the ships and shore attacked the Sea Peoples, leading to their defeat. The battle (1178 BC or 1175 BC) secured Egypts future from the Sea People.

The Battle of Actium

The Battle of Actium was a decisive battle in the Final War of the Roman Republic, which  resulted in the formation of the Roman Empire and Octavius becoming the first Roman Emperor. When the senate declared war on Egypt, Marc Antony pledged his support to Cleopatra. The fleet loyal to Octavius consisted of  250 galleys, whereas the opposition's consisted of around 290 galleys. The battle (31 BC) ended when Cleopatra pulled her forces out (various reasons have been suggested, for example the tension created by the actual battle- as the Admiral Quintus Dellius, had defected to Octavius and revealed Antony's plans to him.). Antony then soon pulled out himslef, leaving 3/4 of his fleet behind. Regardless, this battle meant many of Antony's men deserted him. Ultimately, leading to his demise, the Roman annexation of Egypt and the first Roman Emperor.
The Battle of Lepanto

In 1571, the Christian powers in the Mediterranean had assembled a fleet to confront the powerful Ottoman Empire. The Holy League fleet included ships from Venice, Spain, Genoa, the Papacy and the Knights of Malta, Savoy, Tuscany and Urbino. The Holy League had 212 ships, whereas the Ottomans had 251 ships. The two flag ships soon found themselves in battle with each other and eventually Ali Pasha's ship was took with the Ottoman commander being killed in the process. Ali Pasha's death (against Don Juan's wishes) reduced the Ottoman's morale (his head was decapitated and ton a pike), eventually causing many of them to flee. The battle helped to stop the Ottoman influence in the Mediterranean growing.

The Battle of Tsushima 

During the Russo-Japanese War, The Russian Baltic fleet was sent to help relieve the blockade of Port Arthur , which the Japanese had besieged. However, on the 2nd January 1905 Port Arthur had fell, so the fleet tried to reach Vladivostok instead. The fleets would engage in the straits of Tsushima, The Russian ships were in poor condition, made even worse by the long journey ( the British had refused them access to the Suez Canal). Fouling had made the Russian ships less manoeuvrable, therefore Admiral Togo used this to his advantage. The Japanese won, losing only 3 torpedo boats (they had had 89 ships,  37 being the relatively small, but dangerous torpedo boats. The Russians lost 21 of their 28 ships. The battle was a humiliation, as a Asian nation had defeated a great European great power and along with the Siege of Port Arthur and the Battle of Mukden, it had ruined Russia's reputation. It could be argued all this parlty helped in causing the 1905 revolution, which boiled tension over into the 1917 revolution, which would forever change Russia's history.

Battle of Jutland

Th battle of Jutland is considered the only major naval engagement of WWI and is considered the largest naval battle ever in terms of tonnage.  In 1916 the British had effectively blockaded much of the German coastline, however. the Admiral von Poul was replaced by the more aggressive Admiral von Scheer.  In May, Scheer had had ordered  Adiral von Hipper to move along the Danish coastline,  Admiral Jellicoe in Rosyth saw this as a provocation and put the Grand Fleet to sea. On May the 31st the battle began. The British lost more ships (14 of 151 combat ships, whereas the German had lost less capital ships- however, in total they lost  11 of their 99 ships). Despite, the German successes they were never in a position during WW1 to threaten the North Sea again.

Image Credit:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Seev%C3%B6lker.jpg
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Castro_Battle_of_Actium.jpg
http://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8B%92%E7%8F%AD%E9%99%80%E6%88%B0%E5%BD%B9
http://portsmouthpeacetreaty.org/process/war/images/44-tsushima-battleLg.jpg
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:HMS_Lion_(1910).jpg
Sources:
http://riversfromeden.wordpress.com/2011/08/11/the-battle-of-the-nile-delta-1178-b-c/
http://ehistory.osu.edu/world/articles/ArticleView.cfm?AID=16
http://militaryhistory.about.com/od/navalbattles14011600/p/lepanto.htm
http://www.navyhistory.org.au/the-battle-of-tsushima-1905/
http://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/battle_of_jutland.htm

Byzantium's Secret Weapon: Greek Fire

Greek Fire

Throughout its existence, Byzantium faced many foes and challenges, pivotal in helping it to survive was the state weapon Greek Fire. Greek Fire was a sticky liquid flame that was helpful in both land and naval engagements. Methods of deployment vary, however primarily use were tubes which would be used to spray the fire. To enhance the effect of Greek Fire figureheads of animals were placed on ships, such as a lion's head, and it would appear as if they were spewing fire. Other methods of deployment, include a hand-held projector, comparisons could be made to a modern flame-thrower, and grenade-like deployment methods, possibly using a light catapult.

                                                                   Handheld method of deployment.

Though the precise ingredients for Greek Fire are unknown, suggestions for ingredients have included combinations of Pine Resin, naptha, quicklime, sulphur or niter. As the weapon was so powerful and gave them such an edge over their opponents, no foreigner could hope to learn the state secret and its importance also meant that it was a well guarded state secret. It was such a potent weapon, that it still burnt on water. This potency, however, also lead to safety measures for Greek Fire's use. Firstly, men who used the fire in battle, wore fireproof leather armour. Ships and equipment also remained fireproof by using a unique mixture of vinegar, alum and talc. City defences and building also received treatment to remain fireproof.

The origin of Greek Fire, has in some instances been attributed to Kallinikos, an engineer from Syria, which had been conquered by the Muslims. However, it is possible that chemists and alchemists in Constantinople may have discovered the weapon. However, despite it being a potent weapon, Greek Fire was not a super weapon. The Byzantines had to be careful to not burn their own men and the weapon also had a maximum range, and when enemies were used to the weapon, they could simply move around it. Also, the weapon could only be used effectively at sea with a calm sea and with favourable wind conditions. The Muslims also adapted to Greek Fire by protecting their ships by using methods such as felts of hides soaked with vinegar Furthermore, it should not be though it was only Greek Fire that allowed the Eastern Empire to survive so long, many factors contributed to its long survival. However, Greek Fire was certainly helpful in allowing the legacy of Rome, Byzantium, to survive for centuries.

Image Credit:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Hand-siphon_for_Greek_fire,_medieval_illumination_(detail).jpg

Sources:

http://neobyzantium.com/greek-fire-the-byzantine-secret-weapon/

Enemy at the Gate: The Second Arab Siege of Constantinople

The Second Arab Siege of Constantinople

After the failed Arab Siege of Constantinople (674-678), which the traditional view of events and even actual occurrence has been questioned, the Arabs launched another combined land and sea effort to take the capital of the Byzantine Empire later. This later effort would lead to the Second Arab Siege of Constantinople (717-718). An 80,000 strong army led by Maslama ,brother of Caliph Umar II crossed the Bosporus, while a fleet of around 1,800 ships sailed into the Marmara, south of the city. Emperor Leo III was able to use Constantinople's famed walls to his advantage, as it was. Meanwhile, the fleet failed to sail up the Bosporus, as the Greek fleet harassed it, using Greek Fire.

                                        The Siege depicted in the 14th century Bulgarn translation of  the Manasses Chroncle

The winter of of 717/718 was very harsh, and the Arab land forces were hit hard, due to shortages of supplies. However, Constantinople was supplied via the Black Sea, therefore the winter did not have an as large of an effect on the Byzantines. An Egyptian fleet of around 400 ships and an African fleet of around 360 ships arrived in the spring time and a fresh army started to march through Asia Minor. Many Christian Egyptians in the Arab fleets began to defect to the Byzantines. Furthermore, successive assaults on Constantinople could still not breach the walls. The Bulgarians who had established friendly relations with the Byzantines a year, came to the aid of Constantinople and in July the Arabs were devastated by a Bulgar attack. Contempraries report at least 30,000 Arabs died in the first Bulgarian attack. The attack was likely devastating due to the combination of starvation, disease and being demoralised due to multiple failed assaults on the city.

In August 718 the Arabs were forced to retreat in the face of the Bulgarian onslaught and the lack of successes against the city. Part of the Arab army tried to retreat through Anatolia, whereas the other half attempted to retreat on the remaining Arab vessels. A devastating storm hit the Arab fleet on the way back. All but 5 of the ships were destroyed and the retreating Arab forces on-board the ships were destroyed.

The failure to take Constantinople was a severe blow to Caliph Umar II and the Umayyad Caliphate's general expansion. If the city had fallen it is possible the Byzantine Empire would have disintegrated, opening Europe to Muslim incursions centuries before the Ottoman Empire and while Europe was in turmoil following the fall of Rome. The blow to the Caliphate's might led to Umar II contemplating an evacuation of recent Arab conquests, such as Transoxiana and Hispania and even abandoning the Arab conquests of some Byzantine territory. Although Umar's advisers persuaded him not to take such drastic actions, most Arab garrisons were withdrawn from Byzantine frontier districts. This battle can be compared to the Battle of Tours, as they both helped in halting Islam's expansion into Europe and in establishing Christian dominance on the continent.

Image Credit:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:47-cropped-manasses-chronicle.jpg

Sources:

http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/imperialism/notes/constantinoplesiege.html

http://www.byzantium.xronikon.com/battle.php?byzbat=b8_02

The Battle of Talas: A Key Event in the History of Paper

The Battle of Talas

The Battle of Talas (751 AD) fought between the Chinese Tang Dynasty and the Abbasid Caliphate had political ramifications for Central Asia, as well as being an important event in the history of technology. It was the capture of Chinese prisoners at the Battle of Talas that lead to the introduction of paper to the Islamic world.Prisoners in Samarkand were ordered to produce paper, and the Muslim expansion into Central Asia allowed the transmission of paper-making technology to the Islamic world. By the year 794 AD paper manufacturing could be found in Baghdad.

                                    A Spring Outing of the Tang Court , Zhang Xuan (713-755)

By the end of the period of the Umayyad Caliphate (661-750) Transoxania ( the ancient name used for the land between the Amu Darya and Syr Darya rivers) was mostly incorporated into the Islamic world. However, it was this expansion that opposed the Chinese and the Abbasids, as China had had presence in these areas of Central Asia since the second century B.C. Furthermore, under the Tang Dynasty's reign, China's  influence in Transoxania itself, had grown. A crisis ensured, when a pro-Tibetan ruler cam to power in the kingdom of Gilgit. (The Tibetans influence in the politics of the region had rapidly increased in the 7th century). In 747 AD the Korean general Kao Hsien-chih campaigned against Gilgit, ending the Tibetans influence over it. Another dispute, this time between the kingdoms of Ferghana and Chach, forced Hsien-chih to respond to Ferghana calling for aid and besiege Chach. He promised to let the King of Chach have safe passage, but then decapitated him. The son of the decapitated King escaped and took word Abu Muslim, the Abbasid governor of Khorasan.

Abu Muslim mustered his forces, added reinforcements from Tukharistan and joined with Ziyadi ibn Salih at Samarkand, where Ziyad tool control of the army. The armies met near the town of Talas, on the Talas River.The number of troops the Arabs had at the battle was not recorded by any side, however it is estimated the Arabs may have had 200,000 men, whereas the Chinese had only  30,000 men, according to the Chinese accounts ( Arab accounts put this at 100,000). The battle lasted for five days, according to Chinese annals, whereas the Arab records are inconclusive relating to its duration. However, all records agree that the battle was a major victory for the Arabs. The Chinese blamed on the Turkish Karluk mercenaries, saying they betrayed them. However, it is argued that it is likely that the Karluks were in fact on the Arabs side from the start.

The importance of this battle is debatable. The battle did weaken the Tang Dynasty and may have contributed to their loss of influence in Central Asia, and therefore the spread of Islam into Asia. However, the decline of the Tang dynasty can not be exclusively blamed on the Battle of Talas. Around this time China was facing trouble from the Tibetans, Uygur Turks in Mongolia and the Khitan people. For example, just  two months before Talas the Khitans defeated the Chinese near Ping-lu in 751. Also, the young kingdom of Nan-chao dealt devastating losses to Chinese force in 754. Therefore, it could be argued the Battle of Talas was not decisive in China's loss of influence in Central Asia, rather it was a cumulation of several threats to the Tang Dynasty that led to this decline.

Sources:
http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/198205/the.battle.of.talas.htm
Image Credit:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Spring_Outing_of_the_Tang_Court.jpg

A Brief Look at The Mystery of Atlantis

The Mystery of Atlantis

Atlantis has evoked mystery within humanity throughout the centuries and though many would deny its existence, the different interpretations of it are worth exploring.Plato mentioned Atlantis in his dialogues Timaeus and Critias wrote around 360 BC. Plato says it was a land and naval power which had conquered most of Western Europe and Africa in the 10^th millennium BC and that it was an island in front of the Pillars of Heracles. However, Plato suggests after the Atlanteans invasion of Athens failed the city sank into the ocean, leading to its demise. 

                                         A Map of the Atlantean Empire according to Ignatius L. Donnelly

Ignatius L. Donnelly increased interest in Atlantis with the publication of his book Atlantis: The Antediluvian World. He attempted to establish that all known ancient civilisations descended from Atlantis. He also made other connections suggesting the Great Flood mentioned in the Bible was the flood that destroyed Atlantis.  Many of the books theories have lead to the modern day concepts of Atlantis. Donelly himself thought that Plato's account of Atlantis was largely factual. Donelly also suggests other things about Atlantis, such as that the gods and goddesses of the ancient Greeks, Phoenicians, Hindus and Scandinavians were simply the kings, queens and heroes of Atlantis. Donelly also suggests the acts attributed to them in mythology  are actually a confused recollection of actual historical events.

Of course all this only applies if Atlantis actually existed. After the theory of continental drift became more accepted the popularity of most 'lost continent' theories began to decline. However, a key argument could be the simplistic idea that the concept of Atlantis proves that the myth comes from some fact. Others, may argue that Plato simply came up with it as a metaphor to show the results of greed, corruption and a decline in virtue. However, this may not be necessarily true. But, what is almost certainly true is that Atlantis remains a mystery.

                                                                                                     

Image Credit:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Atlantis_map_1882_crop.jpg

Sources:

http://www.atlantisrevealed.com/main.asp

http://www.bibliotecapleyades.net/atlantida_mu/esp_atlantida_5a.htm

Societas Draconistrarum: A Brief Look at the Chivalric Order

Societas Draconistrarum

The Order of the Dragon was founded in 1408 by Sigismund I of Hungary (who would later become Holy Roman Emperor) and it was similar to other chivalric orders of the time. Its main purpose was to fight the enemies of Christianity, mainly the Turks. However, its enemies also included heretics. Initially, 21 men were inducted into the order ( there was about 24 in 1418). Sigismund later decided to expand the order and between 1431-1437 a second group of inductees were initiated. As the order became larger it began to have two degrees: a superior one and a larger inferior one. The superior degree had the dragon and the cross as its emblem, whereas the inferior one only had the dragon as its symbol. The order became less prominent after Sigismund's death, but its emblem remained on the coats of arms of several Hungarian noble families. The order had quite a number of important members, such as Henry V of England and Vlad II Dracula.

                                                     A Reconstruction of the Order Patch
Henry V of England , famous for his campaigning in France, was inducted into the Order of the Dragon, in exchange for Sigismund being inducted into the Order of the Garter. These inductions came about when Sigismund visited England in hope of making peace between. England and France. Sigismund's plan was to persuade Henry to change his demands against the French. Throughout, Sigismund's visit Henry lavishly entertained him.

 Henry had even intended to crusade for the Order of the Dragon after he had united the English and French thrones, but he died before his plans were fulfilled. The Treaty of Canterbury (1416) sealed an offensive and defensive alliance against France, between Henry V and Sigismund. This was likely due to Sigismund shift away from France and towards England after Henry V's victory  the Battle of Agincourt (1415).

                                                      Sigismund, who founded the Order


Vlad II Dracul (the father of Vlad III Dracula) received this surname in 1431, after being inducted into the Order of the Dragon. He took on the sobriquet in reference to his induction. 'Dracul' derives from the Latin 'Draco' which means 'The Dragon'. His son Vlad III signed some documents using 'Dracula' which literally means 'Son of Dracul' or 'Son of he who was member of the Order of the Dragon'.

The Order of the Dragon seems rather mysterious in a sense, but it could have just been a simple chivalric order. After all, it there were and are other chivalric orders with similarities. The Order of the Dragon itself was modelled after the Order of St.George to some extent. However, the Order's almost disappearance from history, after a point, makes the Order even more intriguing.

Image Credit:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Dragon_order_insignia.jpg
www.museum.hu 
Sources:
http://www.rodoslovlje.com/medieval_serbia/eng/history-dragon.htm
http://www.ucs.mun.ca/~emiller/dragon.html