Georgian Highlanders and the Last Crusaders: The Debate on the Khevsurs Origins

Richard Halliburton was one of the most extravagant and exciting adventurers of the 20th century, mostly famed for his gallant exploits such as swimming the Suez Canal and crossing the Alps on an elephant to imitate the famous general Hannibal. However, in 1935 he was in Tbilisi, the Soviet Republic of Georgia and it was here he heard a very strange tale.

Locals told him of how in 1915, in the middle of World War 1, citizens of Tbilisi were in awe one morning when warriors mounted upon horses, dressed like they were straight out of the Crusades,wearing rusty chain armour and carrying shields and broadswords, appeared and pledged their service to the Tsar, as they heard there was a war on. These were Khevsurs, a group of Georgian highlanders now from the region of Khevsureti.

Georgia is a diverse country full of languages and dialects and varying traditions. However, a mythos has developed that the Khevsurs, a group of Georgian Highlanders cut off by ice and snow for 9 months a year, are descended from Medieval Crusaders. This hypothesis was developed by locals who believed their ancestors were cut off from a larger crusading army and became stranded in the area, but also by the aforementioned Richard Halliburton and the Russian servicemen and also ethnographer Arnold Zisserman and is based on on observations that they gathered when they visited Georgia, but also a belief amongst the Khevsurs themselves that they hold this ancestry.

However,the traditional narrative is a far-cry from this hypothesis. Several Georgian, Greek and Roman sources mention the Khevsurs long  before the crusading age. The religion of the Khevsureti is a unique mixture of Georgian Orthodoxy Christianity and pre-Christian paganism and although this would not rule out the crusader theory, it certainly seems likely the pagan element is retained from before the conversion of Mirian II of Iberia (a significant Kartvelian kingdom). Regardless, there has been enough evidence to create a theory.

Arnold Zisserman spent 25 years in the Caucasus (1842-67) and during his time there the Khevsurs were still under constant threat from the North Caucasus and most still had to live in Medieval fortress-villages. The Russian Empire who controlled Georgia at this point had been fighting the Muslim tribes in the North Caucasus for almost half a century by Zisserman's visit, most famously under the leadership of the Caucasian Avar Imam Shamil. Indeed, a major task for the Khevsurs was defending  their northern border, as well as the protection and strengthening of their own folk version of Christianity. They were trusted as royal bodyguards and warriors against multiple foes. Khevsureti also worshipped flags-crosses and considered themselves permanent members of the army of the sacred flags.

The mythology of the Khevsureti is also symbiotic with their holy war ideology. The myths, or testaments as the locals call them, are oral histories of military movements undertook under the holy flags-crosses. Their mythology also takes into account apparent wars between heroes sometimes known as Sons of God and the role of combat in the conversion and Georgianisation of the pagan highlanders of the Central Caucasus. Fundamentally, it portrays the pivotal war the idea of 'Holy War' takes place in their mythology. 

It is also debatable whether the Khevsurs 'post-conversion' were still pagan or not, even though they retained elements of their folklore. The Eastern Orthodox Church seems the post-conversion ceremonies carried out by the Khevsurs as 'pagan'. These ceremonies led by self-made priests styled crusaders are peace-pilgrimages. They involve tracing the routes of their ancestors' military campaigns and when they come upon a site of a historic victory, which are marked by small prayer-towers, they participate in replications of battles and the taking of these towers from enemies. Ritual combat tournaments and horse races are held on the steep rocky hills. 

These ideas and concepts were possibly built during the 11th-13th centuries due to the effect of the Georgian monarchy. At this time the monarchy was pro-crusade and its culture heavily involved Christianity. Religion was seen as a fundamental part of Georgian state-building.The Georgians were indeed affected by the arrival of the Crusaders, it provided some relief and most modern scholars accept that their could have been limited settlement of the men arriving from the West in the area, as they are mentioned in manuscripts describing battles between  Georgians and Muslims. The Battle of Didgori against the declining Seljuk Empire featured 100-200 Franks. The Georgian state faced several Mongol invasions in the 1230's and it began to gradually weaken until it completely collapsed into several fragmented territories in 1466. Nevertheless, the Khevsurs were intrinsically linked with the fate and policy of the Georgian state.

Above the Georgian state at its height in the 13th century (top) and the various territories post-dissolution (bottom).

The most obvious possible connection to the Crusaders is the clothing of the Khevsurs, which Richard Halliburton acutely describes. Upon his visit he was surprised to finds out that the Khevsurs were not wearing their iconic armour, but rather it was hung up in every home beside the aforementioned sword and gun. Halliburton writes 'Each mesh coat is formed of some twenty thousand tiny iron rings and goes on like a night shirt. The sleeves are short, but mesh gauntlets cover the forearms. With each suit goes a bag-like chain helmet with a hole cut for the face.' and 'A flap folds over,so that the entire head can be protected.For the shins there are likewise mesh greaves. Consequently when completely arrayed, the only parts of the body vulnerable are the knees and thighs.' Therefore, along with the photograph seen above, it is easy to see how the Khevsurs dress fits in with the traditional conception of the Crusader.

\There is also evidence in other traditions of the Khevsurs. Duelling is a popular custom and Halliburton describes 'Like their forefathers, the Crusader Knights, they have a passion for putting on their iron shirts and going at each other with broadswords.'  Halliburton also notes how there was no referee-they knew the 'game' inside out- and that unlike the Medieval tournament, women did not play a major role in the event. Instead, they did not attend, but they could still retained the power to stop a duel. Halliburton notes Sundays are for duelling and getting drunk. They also had a strict system of physical training and martial art (see image below) which formed part of a larger Georgian martial art and military tradition. Once again a custom of the Khevsurs, combat as a sport, heavily links to a Western Medieval influence or heritage.

Finally, Richard Halliburton also thought he noticed several fragments of German and French in the language of the Khevsurs.

 To conclude, the idea that the Khevsur highlanders descend from Medieval Crusaders is based on observation by the human, especially religious and societal customs. Although, it appears that there is some influence by the crusading movement on the Khevsureti. Their likeness seems to be influenced by the culture and policy of the Georgian state and the combination of pagan and Christian folklore, rather than significant direct colonisation. Therefore, although it may appear their is crusading heritage, there is enough evidence to suggest that the Khevsurs lived in the region long before the crusading movement and so therefore it is difficult to accept that the Khevsurs could have possibly descended from Western crusaders. So despite possible connections through language or custom, there is not enough evidence for this theory to be accepted in the main academic community.

Bibliography:

http://ejmas.com/jwma/articles/2003/jwmaart_amberger_0603.htm

http://hearstmuseum.berkeley.edu/exhibitions/photo2/photo2_intro.html

http://www.jodyandrews.net/blog/2014/4/25/the-wolf-and-the-lion-the-story-of-the-lost-crusaders

http://www.cenn.org/Magazine_1/legends.html

Image Credit goes to Wikimedia Commons and:

http://ejmas.com/jwma/articles/2003/jwmaart_amberger_0603.htm

http://www.jodyandrews.net/blog/2014/4/25/the-wolf-and-the-lion-the-story-of-the-lost-crusaders

Duel of the Fates: Darth Maul and Medieval Welsh Poetry- a Star Wars Day Special

The famous scene in Star Wars: Episode I-The Phantom Menace, the climactic duel between fan-favourite Darth Maul and the Jedi Qui-Gon Jinn and Obi-Wan Kenobi has a deep connection to Medieval Welsh poetry.

Although Star Wars and Welsh poetry seem to completely separate subjects, the fact that there is a connection may not be much of a surprise. A high level of thought can go into creating cinema and George Lucas certainly drew inspiration from a wide range of historic and mythological sources. The obvious parallels lie between the Galactic Empire and Nazi Germany, Chancellor Palpatine and Adolf Hitler. However, if Ian McDiarmid (the actor who plays Palpatine) is to be believed in an article from The Guardian the future Galactic Emperor also drew inspiration from Richard Nixon. Therefore, we can see that a link between The Phantom Menace's climatic scene and Welsh poetry is not as far-fetched an idea as it may initially seem.

In this special article due to it being May 4th a.k.a Star Wars Day, I shall explore this engrossing connection, between the Duel in the Theed Generator Complex or the 'Duel of the Fates' and a Medieval Welsh poem Cad Goddeu.

This is one of the most popular duels in the Star Wars mythology, it is easy to see why with the choreography. But the music also stands out and in general feels quite epic or operatic, this is no surprise considering the reputation of John Williams, the composer of the piece. Perhaps, his more famous works are iconic pieces such as 'The Imperial March'  and 'Star Wars Theme'.Yet, this piece, entitled the 'Duel of the Fates', in my opinion is still one of the most memorable cinematic themes, especially when it comes to Star Wars in particular.

However, the lyrics of this song, which in my opinion are hard to identify while watching the scene, are wrote in Sanskrit. Sanskrit is the primary sacred language of Hinduism, it also has philosophical usage in Hinduism, along with Buddhism, Sikhism and Jainism. It is also a literary language (thus different in some ways to the spoken language) and was the lingua franca in Greater India and the Kingdom of Nepal (this refers to a common language that people use, if they do not share the same native language). A controversial issue, the spoken form of the language has seen attempts of revitalisation, with 14.346 self-reported speakers. However, it maintains popular usage in Buddhist hymns and chants and ceremonially in Hinduism.

For me it is much clearer to notice the lyrics when you simply listen to the orchestral piece without the action in the foreground. The Sanskrit lyrics originate from a fragment of an archaic Welsh poem Cad Goddeu or the Battle of the Trees. It was preserved in the 14th century Book of Taliesin, most of the contents of this date from the 10th century or earlier. Although, it is incomplete, it contains some 60 Welsh poems. Furthermore, it is important to take into account, that Taliesin the poet which many of the poems are attributed to, was actually active in the late 6th century, he (like some of the other potential authors) wrote in the Cumbric dialect of Hen Ogledd (a region of Northern England and the Scottish Lowlands inhabited by Celtic peoples, in the post-Roman period.) The poem records a traditional Welsh story in which Gwydion, a magician, trickster and hero of Welsh mythology animates an army of trees to fight for him. 

The picture above shows a folio (13) of the Book of Taliesin, which can be found at the National Library of Wales. Cad Goddeu is composed of 248 short lines, with the poem being easily divisible in different sections.

The first proclaims a first-hand knowledge of all things.

I have been a tear in the air,

I have been the dullest of stars.

I have been a word among letters,

I have been a book in the origin.

I have been the light of lanterns,

There is then an account of a great monstrous beast.

There passed an animal with wide jaws,

On it there were a hundred heads.

And a battle was contested

Under the root of his tongue;

And another battle there is

In his occiput.

Cad Goddeu then tells us of the fear of the Britons and how with Gwydion with his skill and by the grace of God, the trees were animated for combat. Trees and plants are now listed, each one having unique attributes.

The alder trees, the head of the line,

Formed the van.

The willows and quicken trees

Came late to the army.

Plum-trees, that are scarce, 

Unlonged for of men 

The poem continues with an account of the birth of the flower-maiden Blodeuwedd in first-person. It then follows this up with an account of a great warrior who was once a herdsmen and is now a learned traveller. This could be Taliesin himself or Arthur Pendragon (King Arthur). A rather interesting point is how the poem ends with an obscure reference to metalwork. It is also important to mention how the poem is inter-laid with Christian themes throughout, thus pointing towards Christianisation in practice.

A golden gem in a golden jewel.

I am splendid

And shall be wanton

From the oppression of the metal-workers

Overall, the poem describes a conflict between the sons of the Goddess Dôn and the forces of the Welsh otherworld, Annwn (the Sons of Dôn are comparable to the Irish Tuatha Dé Danann). It is initiated by Gwydion's brother Amaethon and Lleu Llaw Gyffes, a heroic figure and nephew of Gwydion, also takes a noticeable role in the battle at Caer Vevenir.

The front cover (as seen above) for the one-track promotional release of 'Duel of the Fates' interestingly depicts the Duel on Tatooine, rather than the final duel on Naboo. Interestingly, Williams aimed for a religious and sacred feeling in his track for this duel, thus the use of Sanskrit seems to fit well. He stated that the setting of the lightsaber duel felt like a pagan altar. The chorus also evokes a ceremonial aspect, Williams stated it seems that the death of one of the combatants seems inevitable. The meditation of Qui-Gon Jinn, when the laser barriers are up, seems to be symbiotic with the orchestral score in the pursuit of a feeling of sacredness.

With the context of the 'Duel of the Fates' in mind, the use of Sanskrit,and the sacred Christian references in Cad Goddeu, combined with its also  mythological and pagan aspects, it is easy to see why Williams created the piece and why it has became so iconic. It was used as inspiration for 'Battle of the Heroes' the piece used during the duel on Mustafar between Obi-Wan Kenobi and Darth Vader, not long ago Anakin Skywalker, the piece is now tragic. Nevertheless, the 'Duel of Fates' has also found home in Revenge of the Sith's duel between Yoda and Palpatine and furthermore in multimedia, mostly now considered Legends material, such as video games like Star Wars Battlefront II, Lego Star Wars and  Star Wars: The Force Unleashed. It has also recently appeared in the canon animated TV series Star Wars Rebels, with a duel between Darth Vader and his former apprentice Ahsoka Tano being the context.

Regardless, I hope this article shows the history and story behind an iconic and memorable piece of cinematic orchestral music. If you have enjoyed this article and want to read more history related posts, please follow me. You could also share this article, or comment below. If you have any suggestions for articles on any area of history then please recommend them to me in the comments sections, even if the idea draws from popular culture like this article.Perhaps I could find a connection between your favourite interest and history. Thanks for reading and May the 4th be with you.

Dosclaimer: I believe any images and videos I have used fall under the remit of fair user. I do not claim ownership of this material.

Image credit goes to Wikipedia and Wookiepedia

Sources:
http://www.ancienttexts.org/library/celtic/ctexts/t08.html

http://starwars.wikia.com/wiki/Duel_of_the_Fates

http://www.theguardian.com/stage/2005/nov/07/theatre1

Julius Caesar and His Famous Quotes

Julius Caesar is perhaps one of the most famous people in History and one thing he is certainly famous for is his quotes, an awful lot of quotes and also misquotes. In this post I have chosen the ones that have stuck in my mind (randomly) over time and explain them, where they were said and the context of that (If indeed they were said at all). So lets just say this is the point of no return and Alea Iacta Est.

'The Die is Cast'- 'Alea Iacta Est'

You probably guessed from the end of the last paragraph that I was probably going to do this one first. 'The Die is Cast' refers to a point of no return, the die (singular dice) the action is irrevocable regardless of its consequences. This was attributed by the Roman historian Suetonius to Caesar as he crossed the Rubicon river in modern day northern Italy, from Cisalpine Gaul. Cisalpine Gaul, interestingly, was the part of Italy inhabited by Celts since the 13th century BC, even though the term is most associated with France, rather than the other parts of Gaul. This act was seen as insurrection and treason, laws were in place to prevent a coup and therefore even though Caesar only crossed with a single legion, Legio XIII, it was a virtual act of civil war.

Crossing the Rubicon resulted in Civil War (49-45 BC) with Pompey and the traditionalist Senate majority (the Optimates.) Caesar is said to have borrowed the phrase from his favourite Greek writer of comedy, Menander.

                                       Caesar pausing on the banks of the Rubicon

'I came, I saw, I conquered'- 'Veni, Vedi, Vici'

This famous phrase also originates from events mixed in with the Civil War with Pompey, Pharnaces II of Pontus (one of my favourite ancient realms, by the way) a client of Pompey was taking advantage of the Civil War. Caesar achieved a quick victory against Pharnaces II at the Battle of Zela and therefore the term refers to a quick, conclusive victory. According to the Roman historian (of Greek origin) Appian, Caesar used this phrase in a letter to the Roman Senate following his victory. Plutarch and Suetonius also mention this 'famous' quote.

                                Modern day Zile, Turkey, the site of the Battle of Zela.


'you too Brutus?'- 'Et tu Brute?'

The phrase 'you too, Brutus?' or 'and you,Brutus?' is most commonly associated with Caesar's last words. Brutus was a close an adopted close friend, yet nephew of Julius Caesar. The quotation is often used to signify the most unexpected betrayal, such as Brutus' betrayal of Caesar during the Ides of March (15 March) 44BC and his assassination.

Julius Caesar's last words are highly contentious among historians, but this phrase is perhaps mostly associated with Shakespeare's play Julius Caesar (1599) where it forms part of a macaronic phrase that finishes 'Then Fall, Caesar!'. Suetonius claimed that others had reported that Caesar's last words were 'you too child?' with the Greek phrase from which it originates having several translations. Some believe this points to Brutus being Caesar's illegitimate son. Suetonius notes that Caesar said nothing as he died, others say that he only said the phrase after recognising Brutus, meanwhile Plutarch also states Caesar said nothing and that he pulled his toga over his head after seeing Brutus as one of the conspirators.

The Death of Caesar by Vincenzo Camuccini from 1798

Julius Caesar is a man of many well-remembered words, whether he spoke them or not. Many of these phrases have entered modern lexicons, but they also tell us a lot about the man himself and his political career. Whether it is a point of no return, a statement of a swift and conclusive victory or a way to express the shock of a utmost betrayal, Julius Caesar's quotes shall remain in the human mind for some time to come,

Bibliography:
http://www.phrases.org.uk/meanings/358600.html
http://ancienthistory.about.com/od/vterms/g/Venividivici.htm
Image Credit goes to Wikipedia

Portugal's Complex Colonial Past: Lusotropicalism to Pluricontinentalism

On 25th April 1974 at 12:20 am Grandola, Vila Morena was played on Portuguese radio marking the beginning of the end for not only the Estado Novo regime, but also of one of the last significant European colonial empires. The Carnation Revolution, so named after its peaceful nature and the placement of the flower in muzzles and on the uniforms of armed men, was organised by the mainly left-leaning Armed Forces Movement (MFA). Much of the planning took place outside the country in African colonies such as Angola, Mozambique and Guinea-Bissau, countries that were to gain independence after the end of Portuguese Colonial War, a cause, but also a result of the coup. Following the revolution the MFA condemned Portugal's foreign policy under the Estado Novo, stating that they had been unable to achieve peace "between Portuguese of all races and creeds". This statement owes a lot to the ideas of Lusotropicalism and Pluricontinetalism, terms that are used to describe Portugal's unique colonial experience. Through this we can see how the Estado Novo legitimised its actions in Africa, far past the decolonisation by other European nations in the 1950's and 1960's.

                                    A mural celebrating the Carnation Revolution stating '25 April Forever!'

Pluricontentinetalism embodies the concept that Portugal was not a colonial empire, but that its overseas possessions formed part of Portugal, rather than separate colonial possessions. The idea has its origins in the 14th century, but one of the most prominent examples was a result of the Napoleonic Wars. After Napoleon Bonaparte's invasion of Portugal in 1807 the Portuguese Prince Regent, the later King John VI decided to take refuge in Brazil. John (his mother Maria I of Portugal incapacitated) decided to implement several reforms on his arrival, including abolishing the Portuguese monopoly on Brazilian trade, opened harbours to the commerce of friendly nations and repealed laws that had prevented manufacturing in Brazil. Rio de Janeiro would act as effective capital, with institutions such as the Council of State, Supreme Court, exchequer and royal treasury being installed, as well as his ministry. With the defeat of Napoleon in 1815, some advocated the return of the monarchy to Lisbon, stating the colonial nature of Brazil, but John enjoyed much greater support and freedom then he did in Portugal and so he was not eager to return. However, Brazilian courtiers pushed for Brazil to be elevated from its colonial status, so they could be recognised as nationals of Portugal, furthermore Brazilian nationalists also supported this elevation, as to end its submissive relation.

Therefore, the scene was set, on December 16th 1815 Brazil was elevated to the rank of kingdom and by the same law, The United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves was created. This transatlantic monarchy did not last long, John later succeeded his mother and was forced to return to Portugal due to radical revolts, on April 22 1821 he appointed his son as regent and two days later left for Europe. Due to growing antagonism between Portugal and Brazil, Pedro oversaw Brazil's transition to independence, becoming it's emperor.

This short-lived Kingdom may seem to diminish the idea of Portugal as a trans-continental state, but it only forms a small part of a complex colonial past, which can only be fully understood through the lens of another idea Lusotropicalism.

              A statue of John VI in Rio De Janeiro (top) and a map of the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves (bottom).

Lusotropicalism is most often associated with the Brazilian sociologist Gilberto Freyre. It embodies the notion that the Portuguese are better colonisers and better at miscegenation than other European nations. This in part due to mixed heritage of the Portuguese themselves, with the Celts, Romans, Visigoths, Jews and Moors all inhabiting the area and also due to the warmer climate of Portugal. Therefore, they are friendly, humane and adaptable. 

Though Freyre's Book 'The Master and the Slaves' book does explore the formation of Brazilian society and refutes the idea that the Brazilians are inferior due to 'race-mixing', the notion of Lusotropicalism is not explicit in this work, rather it is branded in his later works from the 1950's after his travels through the Portuguese Colonial Empire. Freyre himself commented on how he did not invent the myth of racial democracy (that Brazil had escaped racism) and that even though his books recognised the intense miscegenation in Brazil, they did not claim there was no racism or prejudice. 

                                                 

Gilberto Freyre

In the 1930's, the time when 'The Master and the Slaves' was published, Portugal was ruled by António de Oliveira Salazar under the authoritarian Estado Novo regime. Due to the collapse of the Portuguese Empires under the monarchy, the east and India in the 16th and 17th centuries and Brazil in the 17th and 18th centuries, Portugal lacked the military, economic and demographic power to occupy its historic African territories.With the 'Scramble for Africa' by European nations taking place in the late 19th century, it was not until Salazar's reign that a proper colonial enterprise was set up in Africa, this being a colonial regime with genuine institutions and knowledge systems.

Also, around this time, in the 1920's and 1930's, much discussion focused on the colonies was still based on racist and racialist narratives. The majority of historians, anthropologists and intellectuals tried to distinguish the Portuguese as a 'white' race, rather than a mixed or 'Mediterranean'' race, furthermore to distinguishing the Portuguese to the Africans. Freyre's ideas were not popular, but the racialist narrative was slowly being replaced by another more universalist, humanist and evangelist, in regards to the expansion of the Catholic ecumene. The Estado Novo regime did not fully adapt Freyre's ideas in the 1930's and 1940's, they did admit for political reason the Portuguese's unique ability to colonise, but racialist policies were still prominent. Armindo Monteiro, Minister of the Colonies, was an adept of Social Darwinism, he did not believe that a brotherly relationship could be held with the natives, rather it was Portugal's  historic duty to civilise them and convert them to Christianity. These views were commonly held in the political and intellectual circles, to varying levels.

Portugal's unique abilities to colonise were at least from the late 19th century part of the national political and ideological discourse, despite the racialist views held. In this instance, the Portuguese's ability for tropical climates and unique relationships with the natives was was shown through history and anthropology which distinguished the behaviour of Portuguese colonists in Africa compared to their Northern European counterparts. Change was imminent after World War II due to to the condemnation of the projection of hegemony and racial purity of Nazi Germany. The United Nations Charter of 1945 set out the right of colonised people's to self-determination. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights also had an impact, establishing self-determination as a fundamental right and the UN also ascribed colonial powers with the task of preparing their colonies for independence. These actions began the large-scale decolonisation efforts of most European nations, even so Portugal's African colonies did not gain independence until the revolution in the 1970's.

                      "Portugal is not a small country", propaganda showing Portugal's African territories overlaid on Europe.

The UN and the growing pressure from the international community forced Portugal to legitimise it argument's to keep control of its colonial possessions, maintaining the status-quo. This required changes to legislation, doctrinal reformulation and large scale economic development in Angola and Mozambique. In 1951, in the reform framework of the Portuguese political constitution, Salazar proposed to annul the Colonial Act (which he himself introduced,even though it mainly regarded India), integrating it into the constitution with slight changes and differences in terminology. According to the government, the first goal to be achieved was the assertion of national unity, despite dispersion across multiple continents. The term 'Portuguese Colonial Empire' was banned because of its negative connotations, the term 'colonies' was replaced by the 'old' overseas provinces. In this narrative Portugal was a pluricontinental nation, therefore the Estado Novo was unaccountable to the international community in regards to its overseas provinces because they were not colonies, but part of the Portuguese nation.

Although, a tone of assimilation was developed following this, it was not reflected in the treatment of the indigenous populations, The Indigenous Statute, reviewed in 1954, was still denying Portuguese citizenship to the majority of the population in Angola, Mozambique and Guinea-Bissau. Whereas, other 'colonies' such as Cape Verde and India, during the effective occupation of the colonies in the 1940's and 1950's, faced different constitutions. Whereas, the former were seen as distinctly African, Cape Verde and India were seen as part of an ongoing process of miscegenation. India was seen as a completely different civilisation one that had met European Christianity, Cape Verde was seen as regional, rather than colonial and held special rights. 

António de Oliveira Salazar (pictured above) ruled Portugal from 1932 to 1968, he was succeeded briefly by Marcelo Caetono until the Carnation Revolution.

The African colonies were becoming important for Portugal's economy and self-representation, at the time the anti-colonial movements were emerging. Beginning in the early 1960's Portugal found itself at war in Angola, Mozambique and Guinea-Bissau until 1974's revolution. By now we can see how a developed ideology not only legitimised Portugal's military actions, but also developed a reason to hold onto to their overseas possessions. They were part of Portugal and the idea was that they were important to their continued independence, Portugal was in this narrative a country spread across continents, it was Pluricontinental.

Lusotropicalism did not prevent racialist narratives, through miscegenation took place in Brazil, Freyre himself denied the myth of racial democracy. The indigenous populations in colonies, especially on the African continent, were not treated as equals, in general. Nevertheless, Lusotropicalism, much like Pluricontinentalism legitimised political actions and it allowed Portugal to hold onto their overseas territories far beyond that of its European neighbours.

Bibliography:

http://www.britannica.com/place/Brazil/Independence#ref209354

http://adst.org/2015/04/the-carnation-revolution-a-peaceful-coup-in-portugal/

http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/april/25/newsid_4754000/4754581.stm
http://www.institutomillenium.org.br/artigos/a-importancia-de-gilberto-freyre-para-a-construcao-da-nacao-brasileira-parte-ii/
http://miguelvaledealmeida.net/wp-content/uploads/2008/05/portugals-colonial-complex.pdf
http://www.contramare.net/site/en/luso-tropicalism-and-portuguese-late-colonialism-part-1/

Image credit goes to:
Wikipedia
http://library.brown.edu/collections/skidmore/portraits/gilbertoFreyre.html
http://www.contramare.net/site/luso-tropicalism-and-portuguese-late-colonialism-part-2/

Historical Book Review: Edge of Empires, A History of Georgia by Donald Rayfield

The history of Georgia and the Caucasus region in general, is not abundantly found in the English language, there is only a limited range of books on the subject and those that are available tend to focus on the latter days of the monarchies of Imeretia, Kartli and Kakhetia, even so some still focus only on post-Soviet history. Therefore, when a book that claims to cover the history of Georgia from the earliest linguistic traces to as late as 2012, it is a valuable commodity for those interested in this area.

Edge of Empires is therefore a broad sweeping history, one of the few options available on Georgia with such breadth. The book follows a relatively chronological pattern, however when in a large portion of instances Georgia is disunited, Rayfield tends to talk through each division (usually kingdom) rather than in strict chronology. The author defines the areas of land covered in this history as politically modern de jure Georgia and the historic borders of Georgia, but also geographically as 'the region of Transcaucasia between the Black Sea to the junction of the Iori and Ntkvari (or Kura) rivers, and between the high Caucasus around the lower reaches of the Coruh and the upper reaches of the Mtkvati (or Kura) rivers.' As suggested the historic borders of Georgia have in the past stretched beyond the contemporary nation Georgia, so the books remit covers parts of modern Armenia, Azerbaijan and Turkey, when appropriate.

What Edge of Empires certainly makes clear is that Donald Rayfield is an expert on Kartvelian languages, as he uses this at the start of the book to identify the earliest Kartvelians (Georgian is part of the Kartvelian language group.) This is also emphasised  through the wide knowledge of Georgian literature he displays, the most famous being the national epic The Man in the Panther's Skin. Although, it is a history of Georgia, it is not necessary always a history of the Georgian people , Abkhazia and Ossetia have often been part of the Georgian state and so it can also be said to be sometimes a history of Abkhazians and Ossetians, as well as communities such as the Georgian Jews and Armenians, etc.

As the title suggests, Georgia was often an object of contention between various empires, the Iranian/Persian empires arguably matched only by more recent Russian influence. Although, those such as the Ottoman Empire have also had a profound effect. The disunity of Georgia at times is emphasised by Rayfield's narrative, sometimes even after just a small paragraph monarchs have either died or been usurped (in earlier instances, sometimes a sentence or two). This can make the book heavy reading, perhaps Rayfield did not intend Edge of Empires to be a highly readable narrative of Georgian history, but rather intended it to simply provide a clear history. Edge of Empires may also be more of a political history, but the often quick succession of monarchs, means the economic and cultural history in Edge of Empires often makes better reading.

The book is at its strongest when a monarch lives long enough for Rayfield to go in depth, as is the chronological structure of the book. This is more evident in chapters where a large portion of text is dedicated to particular monarchs such as Queen Tamar, Davit IV the Builder, Teimuraz I and Solomon II (often these form the name of the chapters.) Despite this, strong characters such as the Viceroy of the Caucasus, Mikhail Vorontsov, still emerge as colourful. In these instances, we often learn more about cultural and economic output. Vorontsov was the only foreign ruler of Georgia to be commemorated with a statue, although he did crush revolts, one of his most famous feats is establishing the Tbilisi theatre. It is instances such as these we learn more about permanent changes which are in contrast to the seemingly endless political upheaval (depressingly, Georgia has always seemed to have recovered, when more chaos emerges.)

Below we can see two maps that emphasise the politics of Georgia and the Caucasus region. The first map is under Queen Tamar and shows Georgia at its greatest geographical extent. It may initially  look complex along with, although nowhere near as much as, the second map from after the dissolution of a unified Georgian state (the map is from 1490, but the the dissolution had  been taking place earlier during the 15th century), but Queen Tamar's state acted more in unison most of the time, rather than the principalities and kingdoms which did not act in unison a large portion of the time after the dissolution.

                                                 

Nevertheless, explanations of the political situation sometimes leave an impression of the importance, such as the Tratkat and the official division of Georgia between Persia and the Ottomans. However, the status of principalities such as Mingrelia and Guria could have been made more made more clear, whether they are de jure or de facto independent  from the Kingdom of Imeretia, in this instance. Furthermore, as Edge of Empires progresses closer to our own time it is inevitably more politicised, even the author himself has personally met with some of the figures (being an expert in the area, even at this time). This of course offers an interesting insight, but thankfully he maintains a distance as much as possible , most of the time.

Edge of Empires also contains a number of black and white images. The only criticism is that these are occasionally shown before  the character fully enters the stage. At the end of the book, we have complimentary maps and dynastic trees. The maps are useful, as the geography of Georgia is unfamiliar for many, though one may still find it hard to visualise more specific places instantly such as Tao or the city of Akhaltsikhe. A more general map could have been beneficial. There is also a timeline at the back, which is useful as a reminder. The timeline compares events in the wider world (that are relevant) to more localised events in the region.

In terms of practicality, is the expensive price, nearing at least £20 hardcover, but more often or not closer to £30. This is arguably justifiable due to the speciality of the topic and also the lack of other literature on Georgia of this breadth. Nevertheless,  if you have an interest in Georgia and the Caucasus in general and want to read in the area, Edge of Empires is a good option if you want breadth, especially in terms of politics. If you are looking for economic or cultural history, then you will find it a significant minority in this book, however it is no doubt a valuable resource and a comprehensive and mostly enjoyable reading on Georgian history.







Image credit goes to Amazon.co.uk and Wikipedia

Norman-Arab-Byzantine Architecture in 12th Century Palermo

The island of Sicily has a rich history of cultural variety blending together, the very epitome of this is Palermo, which in the 12th century under the de Hautevilles was experiencing an artistic movement  influenced not only by the Norman rule, but also by its Arabic and Byzantine heritage. This Norman-Arab-Byzantine movement, so to speak, was felt throughout the Kingdom of Sicily, but as Palermo was the Norman capital, as well as the Arabic capital for the presence in the area, I shall concentrate on it. There are numerous wonderful examples of the fusion of cultures in Sicily, but first I will start with a small bit of history that led to this situation.

The Romans controlled Sicily from around 218 BC to 468 AD, when it became under the control of the Vandals briefly (468-476) and then the Ostrogoths. It was in 535 that Sicily was occupied by Belisarius, as part of Justinian's ambitions to reconquer the Western Roman Empire, Byzantine rule persisted until the beginning of the Arab invasions in 827 and with the conquest of Palermo in 832 (though the Byzantines still had control of parts of Sicily even in the 12th Century). Norman control of Sicily began with Pope Nicholas II authorising the de Hauteville family in the 1050's (with the alliance made solid in 1052) to retake Sicily for Christianity, this authorisation being granted, as long as they did not recognise the power of Constantinople (the Normans were already in firm control in southern Italy).

Roger II, who was the first King of Sicily (from 1130 to 1154, before this the Norman rule was divided between various dukes and counts) established himself as one of the most powerful monarchs in Europe, also established a court for which he hired people of a wide multi-ethnic background, especially Greeks and Arabs as officials. Under Roger II, Sicily became a highly tolerant society. It should therefore come as no surprise, that in the 12th century, Palermo experienced the Arab-Byzantine-Norman artistic movement, which incorporated these aspects. Pictured below is Roger II in an Arabic style mosaic found in the Capella Palatina.

The first example of architecture that I shall look at is the aforementioned, The Capella Palatina is a royal chapel located within the Palazzo di Normani (Palace of the Normans) which was initially built as a palace for Arab emirs and their harems, based on a site which had earlier been used for Roman and Punic fortifications. By the time of Roger II, it had long been abandoned by the Arabs, yet by 1140 Roger II had built the chapel and it is adorned with various links to Sicily's diverse culture at the time.

The mosaics in the Cappella Palatina are strongly reminiscent of Byzantium, gold-laden as they are. The set-up of the chapel is like that of a traditional Roman basilica ( though traditionally a meeting place, the style later became associated with churches, especially important ones.) This is seen by the three-nave longitudinal body, which is divided by cipolin ( an light Roman marble, consisting of mica- a shiny silicate mineral) columns of the Corinthian order. However, the arches in the Cappella Palatina are of a Saracen style, with other Arabic influences apparent with the 10th century wooden honey-comb ceiling, which is not only painted with Biblical stories, but also with Arabic and Norman courtly life. Clusters of four eight-pointed stars, typical for a Muslim design, are arranged to form a Christian cross. The architectural features of the Capella Palatina are so rich and varied, but it is far from the only example of this artistic movement in Palerme. Below you can see the Saracen-style arches and the Byzantine mosaicsand Arabic Muqarnas (honeycomb vaults for the ceiling) in the second picture.

Another example, of Arabic influence on architecture in 12th Century Palermo is the San Giovanni degli Eremiti ( St. John of the Hermits) which is actually near the Palazzo di Normani. The most striking feature of this building is its five red domes built on cubic towers, built at the time of its restoration in the 12th century. Originally, it was built around the time of the 6th century and it was later turned into a Mosque after the Arab conquest. In 1136, returned to Christians under Roger II, it was entrusted to the Benedictine monks of Saint William of Vercelli. Sadly, the red colour of the domes is not original, as at the end of the 19th century an architect found pieces of red plaster on them and so decided to paint them red.

The Chiesa di San Cataldo also has red domes in a similar style, founded in 1160, bearing also merlons in an Arabic style (the solid upright section in a battlement or parapet).

Finally, we shall look at the Cathedral of Monreale, built under William II of Sicily, it was begun in 1174 and as a church it was made into a Cathedral in 1182 by Pope Lucius III. Monreale, though in the province of Palermo, is actually 9 miles from the actual city and the commune itself has a population of roughly 30,000. Arguably, it is one of the finest examples of Norman architecture and is a exemplar of the Norman-Arab-Byzantine movement.

Strangely, after the Arabs forced the Bishop of Palermo to move this area, the modest church of Aghia Kiriaki became an ecclesiastical centre. Palermo was eventually conquered by the Normans, but its temporary importance may have encouraged William II to build his masterpiece here.

From the outside, you can the Norman twin-towered facade, but once you enter it gives way once again to Byzantine mosaics and decorative art in an Islamic style, which cover virtually all the walls, apart from the ground level, to two metres up (which arguably seem in contrast to the outside, which has been described as rather 'normal'.) The marble floor is geometrically patterned and is in-laid with mosaics of a Middle-Eastern influence. This floor supports two rows of columns in Corinthian style, with lancet arches (narrow with a pointed crown, also visible.)

The cloisters, outside of the cathedral, are the only part of the monastery to survive. They are remarkably preserved, once again mainly created by North African craftsmen, they are also decorated in an Arabic style. The cloisters were built in 1200 as part of the cathedral abbey and we can still see the influence of the craftsmen through the 108 pairs of marble columns, which have Arabic arches, on them are carved Biblical figures, mythological scenes, Arab warriors and Norman knights and also floral motifs and fauna (each column is uniques in some way.) In the south-west corner of the cloisters, is a almost mini-cloister within it,in which there is a Arab fountain surrounded by a four-sided colonnade. According to legend William often washed his face in this mountain (he sometimes lived in a small palace next to the cathedral.)

The archiepiscopal palace and the monastic buildings on the south side were once surrounded by a massive precinct wall, occasionally interrupted with one of 12 towers. However, only ruins remain, in particular, some of the towers are still visible, as are the monk's dormitory and the dining area (frater). The aforementioned cloister is the best preserved part of this area.

Monreale is also home to some royal tombs, a 16th century white marble work for William II is present, as well as his father's tomb( William I), which is deep read and porphyry, this is likely the original, as it dates to the 12th century.) William II's mother, Margaret of Navarre, also has her tomb in Monreale.

Below the pictures show the exterior (top) the interior of the cathedral (middle) and the cloisters, with the Arab style fountain in the background.

Norman Sicily in the 12th century was experiencing its Golden Age, this can be seen through its cultural output, as well as its military exploits. However, one of the best pieces of evidence for this is seen in the unique architectural style that was encompassed by the Norman-Arab-Byzantine movement, it shows a wealth monarchy, a high level of tolerance and combination of cultures, through its magnificence and splendour in design and decoration.




Bibliography:

http://www.thethinkingtraveller.com/thinksicily/guide-to-sicily/sicilian-history/a-unique-architectural-fusion.aspx
http://www.atlasobscura.com/places/cappella-palatina
http://www.sacred-destinations.com/italy/palermo-cappella-palatina
http://www.lonelyplanet.com/italy/sicily/palermo/sights/religious/cappella-palatina
http://www.sacred-destinations.com/italy/palermo-san-giovanni-degli-eremiti
http://www.bestofsicily.com/monreale.htm
http://www.thethinkingtraveller.com/thinksicily/guide-to-sicily/towns-and-cities-in-sicily/monreale.aspx

Image credit goes to Wikipedia

Film Review: God Loves Caviar/The Pirate

Beware spoilers from the start!

'God Loves Caviar', or 'The Pirate' as it seems to be called on Amazon, is a 2012 Greek film that follows the life of Ioannis Varvakis, who could be seen as a national hero of Greece. Ioannis rises from a pirate who raids Ottoman ships to an international caviar millionaire and to his eventual capture by the British. From the beginning we know his eventual fate, due to the fact that the film is being told by two people, his trustworthy servant and his sort of friend-enemy, just after he is sent to a sanitorium.

Where to watch?

Trying to avoid sounding like an advertisement, I watched it on Amazon Prime Instant Video, on which, at least in the UK, it is titled the Pirate. You might be fooled for thinking this an action film by looking at the cover on Amazon, which sadly I can find a high enough quality of image to show you, but there are probably less than two or three minutes of violence. The image below probably portrays the film a bit better. It appears you can also buy the DVD on Amazon, but not under the same banner as the Prime video (the cover below is of the DVD version.)

The story is quite interesting and he feels like a Greek (and actually not fictitious) version of James Onedin. Starting with his piracy against the Ottomans, Ioannis lend his helps to the Russians, in the Russo-Turkish war of 1768-1774, specifically in the Orlov Revolt. This makes him a hero and it does not take long for him to arrive in the court of Catherine the Great after even though his journey there is far from easy, where he is welcomed as a hero. The pace of the film perhaps slows here, previously it had been rapid fire, but even now it is fast. He now travels to the Caspian Sea, in the service of Catherine the Great, where he becomes a merchant (though not a caviar one at this point) and charts the sea. The issues of pace still remain here because I do not think enough time was given to explain why he was sent to Astrakhan, I also did not know he was charting it until he finished.

Like many dramatic characters he seems to have a rampant love life, so his relationships especially with his second and third wives are a quite important component of the film. But, Ioannis still comes across as genuine most of the time, even if at times the portrayal is idyllic, he is certainly human a lot of the time. However, sometimes his fervour for Greece's independence and the film's seems to turn into blind rhetoric against the Turks, as if they are the only people to have committed war crimes. This would be one of my few criticisms of the film.

Another is the pace, as I suggested, and as we reach the end this becomes clear and his role in the Greek War of Independence is barely glossed over. Though, seriously this is a great film and this is only a small criticism. In fact, the story is great and I feel like just under two hours is not enough to tell this eventful historical tale well enough. It would have been better as a 3 and half hour epic (or at least 3 hours) or TV Series that would somehow be ensured of not being cancelled until the whole story is somehow transmitted.

Theological themes are also present in the film, as the title 'God Loves Caviar' suggests, this is done well and adds an extra dimension to the film. The philosophy of a pirate like Ioannis, is also evident, the idea of the sea representing freedom, he is certainly not like a stereotypical pirate, in terms of plundering. It is important to note that despite the alternate title of 'The Pirate', he is only a pirate in proper terms for the first part, then he is really in service, although he retains his identity as a pirate.

A final, sort of criticism, is the fact that in the film Ioannis becomes part of the Order of St Anne (and receives at least another title) and is awarded this by Catherine the Great. After the briefest research I found this to be incorrect, Alexander I give him this reward and although Alexander is mentioned in the film, I understand Catherine was probably used as she is more well known throughout the world.

The film obviously had a limited budget, but most of the time you could barely tell this. There was the occasional use of bad CGI, but to be honest a low budget did not affect my enjoyment of the film. The acting was good, if not at least decent. The film, despite being Greek, was mainly spoken in English, although sometimes it felt dubbed, even though I am sure it was not.

The best part of the film was the story though and as I have hinted, he is truly an interesting character, even if we took some of the things that might have been added for dramatic effect. Towards the end the film gets quite emotional, as you feel Ioannis is slowly fading away into history in a slow decline, despite his re-energising  in terms of  involvement in the Greek War of Independence, the emotions stirred are those of a last gasp breath. A real painting of the hero's film can be seen below.

To summarise, God Loves Caviar, is a drama film that has a solid plot, that falls into the constraints of timing (as a lot of modern films do). He is certainly an interesting historical character and this film seems to do him justice. Despite, the criticisms posed I would certainly recommend watching it, a surprise when I put it on, for I was perhaps expecting over-cheesy action due to the front cover on Amazon which certainly does not do the film any favours, but I guess when I first looked at the film I was inspired to watch it by the description of the film rather than the advertisements. Sadly, it seems it's rebranding as 'The Pirate' was for non-Greeks, but at least it was not a cut down production. Unlike that  film about an admiral during the Russian Civil War, which is a cut down 10 episode TV Series. Because this film is good and enjoyable and because changes that go down in terms of quality and quantity annoy me, I wished other foreign productions would stop being hacked down, because it really puts me of watching them, rather than persuading me to watch them (that sounded a bit moany.) But anyway to end on a positive note, I thoroughly recommend the film.



Image Credit:
http://www.imdb.com/title/tt2181959/
http://www.altcine.com/movie.php?id=1535
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ioannis_Varvakis#/media/File:Ioannis_varvakis.jpg